Jordan Duckworth
College Prep English
Dr. Watkins
Research Paper
February 13, 2017
First, Do No Harm
Primum non nocere. To many this phrase is familiar. To some this phrase is a guideline. Primum non nocere is the Latin translation for: “First, Do no harm.” Anyone in, entering, or interested in the medical field should be familiar with Hippocrates and his oath. Hippocrates was a physician in ancient Greece and was considered the father of medicine due to his many rules and humane ways of treating his patients. Not only did he set the standards for ethical treatments but he also was the first to record his patients. While Hippocrates is generally seen as one of the best physicians not only in his time but also in all of history. It goes without saying that there were many tough decisions along the way just as modern doctors face tough decisions every day. One tough decision the medical community faces is: “Are certain lives more valuable than others?” If anyone has two patients dying, one a 60 year old and one a 23 year old, they cannot save both and any other factors aside one is going to save the 23 year old. The goal of many unethical experiments is to improve the lives of many by harming a few. While in such a black and white description it’s easy to say that it is wrong to harm anyone for the sake of others. Many atrocious unethical medical experiments have taken place in history that have led to medical advancements that have saved lives or improved the medical community.
Medical professionals are not only governed by the law, but also by ethics. Hippocrates wrote the first ethical code that he advised doctors to take. “The Hippocratic Oath is one of the oldest binding documents in history. Written in antiquity, its principles are held sacred by doctors to this day: treat the sick to the best of one's ability, preserve patient privacy, teach the secrets of medicine to the next generation, and so on” (Tyson par. 1). Now this sounds pretty clear at first glance, but it can get murky such as when it tells physicians to never perform surgery: “I will not use the knife” (Tyson par. 12). Many doctors will take some form of oath when they graduate from med school but these are not binding, they are just formalities. When dealing with unethical experiments the question comes up, does the end justify the means? Looking at experiments like those in Nazi Germany, people can clearly see how many people were killed and completely dismiss the experiments, but in cases such as Dr. Sims, people cannot clearly see this because he is seen as a pioneer in the medical field.
There is medical data that could save lives but ethical boards in the United States will not acknowledge the data. The data is from the Nazi experiments during World War 2 times. While the Nazis did many atrocious things, their doctors were not held back by neither laws nor ethics. The doctors were also free to experiment on patients until death, which is something modern medical experiments cannot do and thus cannot obtain needed data. The Nazi doctors wanted to further the survivability of Germans so they performed many experiments. One of the experiments that could yield helpful data is one carried out by Sigmund Rascher. “Rascher also conducted experiments on the effect of cold water on human beings. This was done to find a way for reviving aviators who had fallen into the ocean” (Blaha par. 6). Doctors in modern times do not have any data on humans whose temperature have dropped out of safe levels as they have to treat them right away. Most hypothermia treatments are only speculation due to the lack of data. Many researchers want to use Rascher’s data for good because of the valuable data he collected. “The lowest body temperature reached was 19 degrees C., but most men died at 25 degrees C., or 26 degrees C.” (Blaha par. 6). Even though many experiments resulted in only death or data that is not used one experiment has actually benefitted the world. “The Ravensbruck camp was the site of bone-grafting experiments and experiments to test the efficacy of newly developed sulfa (sulfanilamide) drugs” (Nazi Medical Experiments par. 3). These drugs were tested and found to be useful so Germany mass produced them. The drugs are still in use today, which proves that there was good that come out of these horrendous times.
It is easy to see why people would not want to use Nazi data especially because the US has never performed unethical experiments. Right? Wrong. The United States track record for experiments rivals the Nazis not on quantity but on what they have done. The US performs experiments solely to see what will happen such as the cow blood experiment in 1942. “In 1942, a Harvard doctor, sponsored by the United States Navy, injected 64 prisoners with cow blood” (Michael par. 13). The official reason for this experiment was to see if animal blood could be used for transfusions to save soldiers. One of the most infamous experiments however, is the Radioactive experiments. “Dr. Eugene L. Saenger and his colleagues at the University of Cincinnati conducted experiments with radiation, irradiating 88 men, women, and children from 1960 to 1971” (Michael par. 9). That was only one of many. The purpose was to test the effects of a nuclear war on the American population. Just like the Nazis, the United States did have some experiments that ultimately resulted in good. One of the outcome was Dr. Sims, who is regarded as the father of gynecology. Dr. Sims was the first surgeon to develop a procedure that consistently treated a vesicovaginal fistula. (Wall par. 1). Yet Sims first “patients” were the slave women that he owned. Some of his patients underwent as many as 30 operations. “One young woman, a slave named Anarcha with a particularly difficult combination vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistula, underwent 30 operations before Sims was able to close the holes in her bladder and rectum” (Wall par. 2). Sims has developed many procedures that have saved countless lives; he is seen as a role model.
There are countries that have performed unethical experiments that resulted in nothing but death and more injury such as those conducted by the Japanese Unit 731 and Unit 100. Unit 731 was a biological and chemical weapon research center. “Unit 731 and Unit 100 were the two biological warfare research centres set up in spite of the Geneva Protocol of 1925 banning biological and chemical warfare” (Experiments par. 1). Unit 731’s experiments were unusually cruel and no one survived them: “At least 3,000 people, not just Chinese but also Russians, Mongolians and Koreans, died from the experiments performed by Unit 731 between 1939 and 1945. No prisoner came out alive of the Unit’s gates” (Experiments par. 10). Due to the fact that no one survived the experiments all that's known about the place is from the people who worked there such as a surgeon who gave a personal statement on his first operation there. “I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons” (Experiments par. 5). While the Unit killed thousands of people and its acts were horrendous, it did accomplish its goal of developing effective chemical and biological weapons for use in World War 2. “During the war, the Japanese Imperial Army used biological weapons developed and manufactured by Unit 731's laboratory in Harbin throughout China, killing or injuring an estimated 300,000 people” (Experiments par. 10). If the war had continued the number of people who were injured and died would no doubt be higher, and Unit 731 would have performed countless more experiments.
Other countries have had doctors that perform medical experiments as well but these three countries have done experiments to the extreme. Horrible atrocities have been committed by doctors throughout history, but many of these had justifiable reasons and even resulted in medicinal advancements that saved lives. A physician’s duty is bettering the quality of life so it is easy to see why some would believe that their actions are justified if it helps more than harms in the end. Sadly, many experiments do not result in anything other than suffering or answering a couple of questions. As for the experiments that did result in useful data, the data should not be withheld just due to the way in which it was obtained. The data from unethical experiments could save lives.
Works cited
Blaha, Franz. "Dachau: The Medical Experiments, 1941–5." Gale World History in Context, Gale, 2014. Student Resources in Context, link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/RKDTYM226377214/SUIC?u=chil38234&xid=840f2fea. Accessed 25 Jan. 2017.
Koh, Michael. "13 Instances Of Unethical Human Experimentation Performed In The United States." Thought Catalog. Thought Catalog, 05 Dec. 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2017.
“Nazi Medical Experiments.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005168.
“Experiments.” UNIT 731 - Experiments, www.unit731.org/Experiments.html.
Wall, L L. “The Medical Ethics of Dr J Marion Sims: a Fresh Look at the Historical Record.”Journal of Medical Ethics, BMJ Group, June 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2563360/.
Tyson, Peter. “The Hippocratic Oath Today.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 27 Mar. 2001, www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/hippocratic-oath-today.html. Accessed 22 Feb. 2017.
College Prep English
Dr. Watkins
Research Paper
February 13, 2017
First, Do No Harm
Primum non nocere. To many this phrase is familiar. To some this phrase is a guideline. Primum non nocere is the Latin translation for: “First, Do no harm.” Anyone in, entering, or interested in the medical field should be familiar with Hippocrates and his oath. Hippocrates was a physician in ancient Greece and was considered the father of medicine due to his many rules and humane ways of treating his patients. Not only did he set the standards for ethical treatments but he also was the first to record his patients. While Hippocrates is generally seen as one of the best physicians not only in his time but also in all of history. It goes without saying that there were many tough decisions along the way just as modern doctors face tough decisions every day. One tough decision the medical community faces is: “Are certain lives more valuable than others?” If anyone has two patients dying, one a 60 year old and one a 23 year old, they cannot save both and any other factors aside one is going to save the 23 year old. The goal of many unethical experiments is to improve the lives of many by harming a few. While in such a black and white description it’s easy to say that it is wrong to harm anyone for the sake of others. Many atrocious unethical medical experiments have taken place in history that have led to medical advancements that have saved lives or improved the medical community.
Medical professionals are not only governed by the law, but also by ethics. Hippocrates wrote the first ethical code that he advised doctors to take. “The Hippocratic Oath is one of the oldest binding documents in history. Written in antiquity, its principles are held sacred by doctors to this day: treat the sick to the best of one's ability, preserve patient privacy, teach the secrets of medicine to the next generation, and so on” (Tyson par. 1). Now this sounds pretty clear at first glance, but it can get murky such as when it tells physicians to never perform surgery: “I will not use the knife” (Tyson par. 12). Many doctors will take some form of oath when they graduate from med school but these are not binding, they are just formalities. When dealing with unethical experiments the question comes up, does the end justify the means? Looking at experiments like those in Nazi Germany, people can clearly see how many people were killed and completely dismiss the experiments, but in cases such as Dr. Sims, people cannot clearly see this because he is seen as a pioneer in the medical field.
There is medical data that could save lives but ethical boards in the United States will not acknowledge the data. The data is from the Nazi experiments during World War 2 times. While the Nazis did many atrocious things, their doctors were not held back by neither laws nor ethics. The doctors were also free to experiment on patients until death, which is something modern medical experiments cannot do and thus cannot obtain needed data. The Nazi doctors wanted to further the survivability of Germans so they performed many experiments. One of the experiments that could yield helpful data is one carried out by Sigmund Rascher. “Rascher also conducted experiments on the effect of cold water on human beings. This was done to find a way for reviving aviators who had fallen into the ocean” (Blaha par. 6). Doctors in modern times do not have any data on humans whose temperature have dropped out of safe levels as they have to treat them right away. Most hypothermia treatments are only speculation due to the lack of data. Many researchers want to use Rascher’s data for good because of the valuable data he collected. “The lowest body temperature reached was 19 degrees C., but most men died at 25 degrees C., or 26 degrees C.” (Blaha par. 6). Even though many experiments resulted in only death or data that is not used one experiment has actually benefitted the world. “The Ravensbruck camp was the site of bone-grafting experiments and experiments to test the efficacy of newly developed sulfa (sulfanilamide) drugs” (Nazi Medical Experiments par. 3). These drugs were tested and found to be useful so Germany mass produced them. The drugs are still in use today, which proves that there was good that come out of these horrendous times.
It is easy to see why people would not want to use Nazi data especially because the US has never performed unethical experiments. Right? Wrong. The United States track record for experiments rivals the Nazis not on quantity but on what they have done. The US performs experiments solely to see what will happen such as the cow blood experiment in 1942. “In 1942, a Harvard doctor, sponsored by the United States Navy, injected 64 prisoners with cow blood” (Michael par. 13). The official reason for this experiment was to see if animal blood could be used for transfusions to save soldiers. One of the most infamous experiments however, is the Radioactive experiments. “Dr. Eugene L. Saenger and his colleagues at the University of Cincinnati conducted experiments with radiation, irradiating 88 men, women, and children from 1960 to 1971” (Michael par. 9). That was only one of many. The purpose was to test the effects of a nuclear war on the American population. Just like the Nazis, the United States did have some experiments that ultimately resulted in good. One of the outcome was Dr. Sims, who is regarded as the father of gynecology. Dr. Sims was the first surgeon to develop a procedure that consistently treated a vesicovaginal fistula. (Wall par. 1). Yet Sims first “patients” were the slave women that he owned. Some of his patients underwent as many as 30 operations. “One young woman, a slave named Anarcha with a particularly difficult combination vesicovaginal and rectovaginal fistula, underwent 30 operations before Sims was able to close the holes in her bladder and rectum” (Wall par. 2). Sims has developed many procedures that have saved countless lives; he is seen as a role model.
There are countries that have performed unethical experiments that resulted in nothing but death and more injury such as those conducted by the Japanese Unit 731 and Unit 100. Unit 731 was a biological and chemical weapon research center. “Unit 731 and Unit 100 were the two biological warfare research centres set up in spite of the Geneva Protocol of 1925 banning biological and chemical warfare” (Experiments par. 1). Unit 731’s experiments were unusually cruel and no one survived them: “At least 3,000 people, not just Chinese but also Russians, Mongolians and Koreans, died from the experiments performed by Unit 731 between 1939 and 1945. No prisoner came out alive of the Unit’s gates” (Experiments par. 10). Due to the fact that no one survived the experiments all that's known about the place is from the people who worked there such as a surgeon who gave a personal statement on his first operation there. “I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons” (Experiments par. 5). While the Unit killed thousands of people and its acts were horrendous, it did accomplish its goal of developing effective chemical and biological weapons for use in World War 2. “During the war, the Japanese Imperial Army used biological weapons developed and manufactured by Unit 731's laboratory in Harbin throughout China, killing or injuring an estimated 300,000 people” (Experiments par. 10). If the war had continued the number of people who were injured and died would no doubt be higher, and Unit 731 would have performed countless more experiments.
Other countries have had doctors that perform medical experiments as well but these three countries have done experiments to the extreme. Horrible atrocities have been committed by doctors throughout history, but many of these had justifiable reasons and even resulted in medicinal advancements that saved lives. A physician’s duty is bettering the quality of life so it is easy to see why some would believe that their actions are justified if it helps more than harms in the end. Sadly, many experiments do not result in anything other than suffering or answering a couple of questions. As for the experiments that did result in useful data, the data should not be withheld just due to the way in which it was obtained. The data from unethical experiments could save lives.
Works cited
Blaha, Franz. "Dachau: The Medical Experiments, 1941–5." Gale World History in Context, Gale, 2014. Student Resources in Context, link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/RKDTYM226377214/SUIC?u=chil38234&xid=840f2fea. Accessed 25 Jan. 2017.
Koh, Michael. "13 Instances Of Unethical Human Experimentation Performed In The United States." Thought Catalog. Thought Catalog, 05 Dec. 2014. Web. 06 Feb. 2017.
“Nazi Medical Experiments.” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005168.
“Experiments.” UNIT 731 - Experiments, www.unit731.org/Experiments.html.
Wall, L L. “The Medical Ethics of Dr J Marion Sims: a Fresh Look at the Historical Record.”Journal of Medical Ethics, BMJ Group, June 2006, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2563360/.
Tyson, Peter. “The Hippocratic Oath Today.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, 27 Mar. 2001, www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/hippocratic-oath-today.html. Accessed 22 Feb. 2017.